Lithography

Lithography is a technique for printing on a smooth surface. It can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or another appropriate material. It can also refer to photolithography, a micro fabrication method used to construct integrated circuits and micro electromechanical systems. Lithography works because of the revulsion of oil and water. Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in 1798.

Lithography is a printing method that uses chemical processes to make an image. For instance, the positive part of an image would be a hydrophobic chemical, while the negative image would be water. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a companionable ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image. This allows for a comparatively flat print plate which allows for much longer runs than the older physical methods of imaging (e.g., embossing or engraving).

current high-volume lithography is used to make posters, books, newspapers, packaging, credit cards, decorated CDs – just about any smooth, mass-produced item with print on it.

Print spooler

In computer science, spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on-line. It refers to putting jobs in a buffer, a special area in memory, or on a disk where a device can access them when it is ready.

Spooling is useful because campaign access data at different rates. The buffer provides a waiting station where data can reside while the slower device catches up. Objects is only added and deleted at the ends of the area; there is no random access or editing. This also allows the CPU to work on other tasks while waiting for the slower device to do its task.

It can also refer to a storage device that incorporates a physical pin, such as a tape drive.

The most common spooling application is print spooling. In print spooling, documents are loaded into a buffer, and then the printer pulls them off the buffer at its own rate. Because the documents are in a buffer where they can be accessed by the printer, the user is free to perform other operations on the computer while the printing takes place in the surroundings. Spooling also lets users place a number of print jobs on a queue instead of waiting for each one to finish before specifying the next one.

"Wireless" factories and vacuum tubes

Marconi opened the world's first "wireless" factory in Hall Street, Chelmsford, England in 1898, employing around 50 people. Around 1900, Tesla opened the Wardenclyffe Tower facility and advertised services. By 1903, the tower structure neared completion. Various theories exist on how Tesla planned to achieve the goals of this wireless system. Tesla claimed that Wardenclyffe, as part of a World System of transmitters, would have permitted secure multichannel transceiving of information, universal navigation, time synchronization, and a global location system.The next great invention was the vacuum tube detector, invented by a team of Westinghouse engineers. On Christmas Eve, 1906, Reginald Fessenden ransmitted the first radio audio broadcast in history from Brant Rock, Massachusetts. Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included Fessenden playing O Holy Night on the violin and reading a passage from the Bible. The world's first radio news program was broadcast August 31, 1920 by station 8MK in Detroit, Michigan. The world's first regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research Centre at Writtle near Chelmsford, England.

Postage Stamp

A postage stamp is proof of pre-paying a fee for postal services. Usually a small paper rectangle which is attached to an cover, signifying that the person sending the letter or package has paid for delivery, it is the most popular option to using a prepaid-postage envelope.

History

In it he argued that it would be well again for the sender to pay the cost of delivery, rather than the receiver who could refuse the letter if they could not or did not want to pay, as occasionally happened at the time. He also argued for a uniform rate of one penny per letter, no matter where its destination. Accounting costs for the government would thus be cut; postage would no longer be charged according to how far a letter had traveled, which required each letter to have an individual entry in the Royal Mail's accounts. Chalmers' ideas were finally adopted by Parliament in August, 1839 and the General Post Office launched the Penny Post service the next year in 1840 with two prepaid-postage symbolic envelopes or wrappers: one valued at a penny and one valued at two pence.
Three months later on the first prepaid-postage stamp, known as the Penny Black was issued with the profile of Queen Victoria printed on it. Because the United Kingdom issued the first stamps, the Universal Postal Union grants it an exemption from its rule that the recognition of the issuing country must appear on a stamp in Roman script for use in international mails. Before joining the U.P.U. many countries did not do this; there are very few violations of the rule since this time, though one example is the U.S. Pilgrim Tercentenary series, on which the country designation was inadvertently excluded. Because of this the numerous early issues of China and Japan often confound new collectors unfamiliar with Oriental scripts. A stamp must also show a face value in the issuing country's currency. Some countries have issued stamps with a letter of the alphabet or designation such as "First class" for a face value. Because of the U.P.U. rules their use is restricted to domestic mail, but breach of this rule is often tolerated. Exceptions to this are the British "E" stamp and the South African "International Letter Rate" stamp.

Sea water

Sea water is water as of a sea or ocean. On normal, sea water in the world's oceans has a salinity of ~3.5%. This means that for every 1 liter of sea water there are 35 grams of salts dissolved in it. This can be expressed as 0.6M NaCl. Water with this level of osmolality is, of course, not potable.

Sea water is not consistently saline throughout the world. The planet's freshest sea water is in the Gulf of Finland, part of the Baltic Sea. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high temperatures and controlled circulation result in high rates of surface evaporation and there is little fresh inflow from rivers. The salinity in isolated seas can be considerably greater.

The thickness of sea water is between 1020 and 1030 kg/m3. Due to chemical buffering, seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4.

Ocean salinity

Scientific theories behind the beginning of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers, having been leached out of the ground by rainfall runoff. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts would be retained and determined as the process of vanishing removed the water. Halley noted that of the small number of lakes in the world without ocean outlets, most have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering".

Halley's theory is partially correct. In addition, sodium was leached out of the ocean floor when the oceans first formed. The presence of the other leading element of salt, chloride, results from "out gassing" of chloride with other gases from Earth's interior via volcano’s and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride consequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.

Ocean salinity has been stable for millions of years, most likely as an importance of a chemical/tectonic system which recycles the salt. Since the ocean's creation, sodium is no longer leached out of the ocean floor, but instead is captured in sedimentary layers covering the bed of the ocean. One theory is that plate tectonics result in salt being forced under the continental land masses, where it is again gradually leached to the surface.

Jet Airways

Jet Airways is an airline based in India, helping domestic and international routes. The airline operates over 250 flights to 44 destinations across the country, with the greater part of flights operated from Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai. It at present controls about 40% of India's aviation bazaar.

Background

Jet Airways was recognized on 5 May 1993 with a fleet of 4 Boeing 737-300 aircraft, with 24 daily flights helping 12 destinations.

Operations

Its 44 destinations include most of the big cities in India. Its worldwide destinations include Kathmandu, Colombo, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur and London's Heathrow Airport. Jet Airways was the first personal airline of India to fly to international destinations. It was later joined by Air Sahara. The daily Delhi-London service started in October of that year.

Jet Airways and Air Sahara are the only personal airlines which survived the Indian business downturn of the 1990s. On January 19, 2006 Jet Airways announced that it is buying Air Sahara for $500 million. This is the major invasion in India's aviation history and the resulting airline will be the country's largest.
In 2006 Jet Airways will be expanding it's route network from Delhi via the north Indian city of Amritsar, as it is to begin Amritsar-London and/or Amritsar-Birmingham